In the section on complex sets we introduced the complex plane and observed that a complex number could be represented by a point in the plane. The complex number z could be expressed as a pair of real numbers, a and b such that z=a+b*i. We also expressed points in the plane as vectors. A vector which we pictured as a line in a certain direction of a certain length could as well be just the two numbers written in a fixed arrangement called a "matrix". A matrix is an array into which numbers may be placed as illustrated below.

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|a|

|b|

Again thinking back to the previous section, we used the rules of complex arithmetic to write functions of complex numbers as for example the function z1=z0^2+z0 which generated the Mandelbrot set. If x and y are a pair of real numbers, the Mandelbrot function gives us a prescription for finding new x and y in terms of old x and y. It goes like this: new x = x^2+y^2+x and new y = -2*x*y+y . The new x and y define a new point in the plane so our prescription transformed the original point.

We have seen how repeatedly applying the Mandelbrot function to itself (iterating) generates a series of points in the complex plane. Whether that series diverged or not determined if the starting point was in the Mandelbrot set. Each application of the function moved the point to a new location or transformed it. So we refer to a rule for generating a new x and y as a transform. There are practically a limitless number of transforms that we might make up, any relationship where new x and new y are some function of the old x and old y would serve.

In the first display of this section we will look at the Mandelbrot transform. In previous iterations, we dealt with only one point at a time and tracked how that point was transformed as we iterated new x = x^2+y^2+x and new y = -2*x*y+y . Here we will carry out the transform simultaneously on the four corners of a square. We already know that how a point is transformed by the Mandelbrot transform depends very much on where it was located in the plane. We might expect that running the same transform on different points would produce noticeably different results.

The display we will use in this section represents a portion of a plane with dimensions x and y. The coordinates of the corners of the square are displayed and each side of the square is in a different color to help you keep track of the effect of the transform. Each corner is identified by the pair of colors of the lines that make up the corner. For example there will be a red/green corner, a green/blue corner, etc. Clicking on the Action button will carry out the indicated transformation in the next few displays. Run the Mandelbrot Transform on a Square display.

There is a class of transforms which is not so hard on the figures they transform. They preserve the basic form of an object and only rotate, stretch or move it. There is a structural affinity of the new shape for the old. These transforms are called "affine" transforms, reflecting that affinity. Affine transforms do not involve raising x or y to powers or multiplying them together.

If a plane figure is to retain its structure then it may only be rotated, resized or moved. Each of these operations may take place along either of two dimensions so an affine transform must be completely defined by six numbers that we will call xsize, ysize, xspin, yspin, xdisplacement (xdisp) and ydisplacement (ydisp). The spin numbers represent angles, the size numbers are scale factors and the displacements are movements. We already know how to move points by just adding xdisp to the x components and ydisp to the y components of the points to be moved.

The application of rotation and resizing to points in a plane is conveniently handled by creating a 2 by 2 matrix that contains the rotation and resizing intelligence, then using the rules of linear algebra to multiply the matrix times the vector representing the point to be transformed. Following this process gets us to the point where we have a prescription for new x and new y as we did for the Mandelbrot transform. Affine transforms have the form: new x = a*x + b*y +e and new y = c*x + d*y + f .

The a, b, c, and d numbers in the expressions above take care of the rotation and resizing of points in a plane. They are related to the spin and size numbers through the trigonometric functions, sine and cosine as follows:

a=xsize*cos(xspin)

b=-ysize*sin(yspin)

c=xsize*sin(xspin)

d=ysize*cos(yspin)

Now we will look at some particular affine transforms. On the next display we will again transform a small square as we did in applying the Mandelbrot transform. The first example has no spin and no displacement. The resizing factors in both the x and y dimension are 1, implying no resizing. This is sort of a null transform, not very interesting except as a starting point. Run the Null Transform display.

You will have noticed that acting on our square with the null transform had no effect. Each iteration left all the corners where they were. In the next display we have altered the null transform only by introducing an xdisp of 2, the width of the square. Run the X Displacement Transform display.

Next we will do away with the displacement and alter the xsize number to be 0.9. Run the X Size less than 1 Transform display.

In the next display we repeat the last transform with the addition of a ysize of 0.9. Run the X,Y Size less than 1 Transform display.

If the xsize or ysize numbers were greater than 1 we would see the squares getting larger and farther from the origin. Iterating such a transform would quickly run us out of bounds. Since we are not going to be interested in transforms which diverge under iteration, we will restrict ourselves to size parameters less than or equal to 1.

Next we will examine the effect of xspin on the square. Run the X Spin (swing) Transform display.

Now we will look at the effect of yspin by itself. It is completely analogous to the xspin case but rotates vertical components. In a later display you will be able to vary the transform values. Try repeating these transform with xspin or yspin as the only non-null item. By experimenting with different spin values you will develop some feel for what these terms in the transform do. It is much easier to observe experimentally than to calculate or intuitively predict the result of the spin terms by themselves. Spin with additional terms is even harder to predict. Run the Y Spin Transform display.

Now that we have examined displacement, sizing and spins independently we will begin combining them. First a displacement together with a size reduction. We will not concern ourselves farther with size factors greater than 1 since these when iterated cause points to diverge out of bounds, however large the chosen limits. In this case the spin terms are zero and we shrink the square in both dimensions while moving it in the +x and +y direction. Notice that though the displacement remains fixed, each successive iteration moves the square less distance. Run the X,Y Shrink + X,Y Displacement Transforms display.

As we saw in the last display, the combination of moving and shrinking created a point on the display where all the points in our square tended to end up under iteration. Such a focus is referred to as a fixed point. We will see that any time we iterate a transform where shrinkage in both dimensions is invoked, we will find a fixed point somewhere. The location of the fixed point will be determined by the interaction of all the parameters. It is difficult to predict, just from the parameter values where the fixed point will be because the effects are not independent.

On the next display we will combine spin and displacement, this time spinning counterclockwise by using positive values for xspin and yspin. Try to visualize the effect you will get as you iterate this transform. Run the X,Y Spin + X,Y Displacement display.

So far in this section of the program, we have worked with a single transform which might incorporate shrink, spin and displacement elements. In the next section we will examine the effect of iterating multiple transforms.

Are there any questions?